Waves of Chinese emigration have happened throughout history. The mass emigration known as the Chinese diaspora; which occurred from the 19th century to 1949; was mainly caused by wars and starvation in mainland China; invasion from various foreign countries; as well as the problems resulting from political corruption.- Most immigrants were illiterate peasants and manual labourers; called coolies; who emigrated to work in places such as the Americas; Australia; South Africa; and Southeast Asia. Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies at Leiden